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Open Decision Ledger · Rehabilitation & bankruptcy

Whether a State of Excess Liabilities Is Required for Avoidance of Preferential Acts and the Subjective Requirements of Intentional Avoidance

Translated from the Korean original. Read the Korean

Supreme Court, Nov. 10, 2005, 2003Da271 (judgment)

Case name: 근저당권설정계약부인등

Official text on the National Law Information Center

  1. Question

    To avoid, under the Bankruptcy Act, a preferential act that provided security to only one specific creditor, must the debtor have been in a state where liabilities exceeded assets at the time of the act, and what awareness is required for intentional avoidance?

  2. Holding

    Even if the debtor was in a state where assets exceeded liabilities at the time of the act, a preferential act may be avoided if there is a likelihood that the assets available for distribution will be unable to satisfy in full both common benefit claims and bankruptcy claims in the future. The Supreme Court held that the subjective requirement of intentional avoidance is an awareness that payment or security is being provided to only a specific creditor in order to evade the principle of equality among creditors, and upheld the court below, which recognized as subject to avoidance a maximum amount mortgage established to secure a transaction that was in form a repayment followed by a re-lending but in substance an extension of the term.

    Summary of the holding, verbatim

    행위 당시 자산초과상태였다 하여도 장차 파산절차에서 배당재원이 공익채권과 파산채권을 전부 만족시킬 수 없는 이상, 그리고 그러한 개연성이 존재하는 이상, 일부 특정 채권자에게만 변제를 한다거나 담보를 제공하는 것은 다른 채권자들이 파산절차에서 배당받아야 할 배당액을 감소시키는 행위로서 부인권 행사를 할 수 있다.

    Unofficial English translation

    Even if one was in a state of excess assets at the time of the act, so long as, and insofar as there is a likelihood that, in future bankruptcy proceedings the source of distribution cannot satisfy the common benefit claims and the bankruptcy claims in full, paying only some specific creditors or providing security is an act that diminishes the amount to be distributed to the other creditors in bankruptcy proceedings, and the right of avoidance may be exercised in respect thereof.
  3. Disposition

    Dismissed Stated in the decision

    상고를 기각한다.

    Unofficial English translation

    The appeal is dismissed.
  4. Form of the test

    Elements stated Stated in the decision

    채권자평등의 원칙을 회피하기 위하여 특정채권자에게만 변제 혹은 담보를 제공한다는 인식이 필요하다고 할 것이다.

    Unofficial English translation

    It must be said that the awareness that payment or security is being provided only to specific creditors in order to evade the principle of equality among creditors is required.
  5. Factors

    • 장차 파산절차에서 배당재원이 공익채권과 파산채권을 전부 만족시킬 수 없는 이상
    • 특정한 파산채권자를 배당에서 유리하게 하고 다른 파산채권자와의 공평에 반하는
    • 채권자평등의 원칙을 회피하기 위하여 특정채권자에게만 변제 혹은 담보를 제공한다는 인식
    • 그 실질 및 경제적 효과에 있어서는 기존 채무에 대한 기한의 연장에 불과한 점

    Unofficial English translation

    • so long as, in future bankruptcy proceedings, the source of distribution cannot satisfy the common benefit claims and the bankruptcy claims in full

    • putting a specific bankruptcy creditor in an advantageous position in the distribution and being contrary to fairness with the other bankruptcy creditors

    • the awareness that payment or security is being provided only to specific creditors in order to evade the principle of equality among creditors

    • the fact that, in its substance and economic effect, it amounted to nothing more than an extension of the term of the existing debt

  6. Relation to precedent

    States a new standard Read from the decision

    편파행위에 대한 고의부인이 인정되기 위하여 요구되는 주관적 요건의 내용

    Unofficial English translation

    the content of the subjective requirement demanded for the recognition of intentional avoidance of a preferential act

    Decisions referred to

    None listed

  7. Burden of proof

    Not addressed Not in the decision

  8. Open question and revisit condition

    For a debtor in a state where assets exceeded liabilities at the time of the act, on the basis of what materials and as of what point in time is the likelihood that the assets available for distribution will become insufficient determined?

    If the intentional avoidance provision of Article 64, subparagraph 1 of the Bankruptcy Act is replaced by another statute and its interpretation changes, or if subsequent decisions on the subjective requirements of preferential acts are handed down, this reading will be re-examined.

Cross-family AI independent reading & axis check

7 of 8 axes matched GPT-6 Astra (OpenAI, codex CLI) · 2026-10-16

Compared with an independent reading by another family of AI (GPT-6 Astra), which read only the original text without seeing the first reading, 7 of the 8 axes agreed, and the readings diverged on axis 6 (Relation to precedent).

Axis 6 (Relation to precedent): Primary “States a new standard” vs Independent “Cannot be determined”

Because the original text specifies the required awareness on the basis of a balance with transactional security, the first reading may read it as setting a new standard, but since there is no introduction of precedent or indication of a change, the independent reading may reserve confirmation.

편파행위에 대한 고의부인이 인정되기 위하여 요구되는 주관적 요건의 내용

Raw responses and comparison record: Protocol · Blind readings (JSONL) · Axis comparison (JSONL) · SHA-256 (JSON)

Lower-court contrast & scope of application

Lower-court reading vs. Supreme Court holding

Lower-court context: The court below (Seoul High Court Decision 2001Na9948 rendered November 28, 2002), on the basis of the deterioration of the bankrupt company's financial condition, the withdrawal of deposits, the maturity of short-term borrowings, and the suspension of payments only 4 days after the maximum amount mortgage agreement, held that the bankrupt company had an awareness of the decrease in assets available to creditors and of the impairment of equality, and that the defendant also knew that the act was a preferential act, and granted the plaintiff's alternative claim seeking avoidance registration under Article 64, subparagraph 1 of the Bankruptcy Act. It also held that the loan of 40 billion won made on December 8, 1997 was in substance an extension of the maturity date of existing debt, and that, even though the result of the asset review showed a state where assets exceeded liabilities, it is difficult to regard all contingent liabilities as having been taken into account.

Supreme Court standard: The Supreme Court held that the court below's determination — that, in light of the execution of the maximum amount mortgage agreement prior to the payment, the temporal proximity of the payment and the loan, the identity of the amounts, and the acute liquidity crisis, the payment and the re-lending were conditionally linked and constituted in substance an extension of the term — was proper. It clarified the legal principle that, unlike the creditor's right of revocation, the right of avoidance does not require a state where liabilities exceed assets, and, construing the court below's holding as resting on the subjective requirement of an awareness of an intention to evade the principle of equality among creditors, dismissed the final appeal.

Distinguishing conditions

  • Where the provision of security was given as consideration not for an extension of the term of existing debt but for the provision of new funds to continue the business, and may be regarded as socially necessary and reasonable
  • Where, at the time of the act, assets exceeded liabilities and, even taking contingent liabilities into account, there is a high likelihood that the assets available for distribution will be able to satisfy in full both common benefit claims and bankruptcy claims in the future
  • Where the debtor had no foreknowledge of an imminent suspension of payments, making it difficult to find an awareness of an intention to evade the principle of equality among creditors

Record verification notes

Before asserting the same conclusion, it is first necessary to check whether the provision of security and the loan were in substance a grant of new credit, and whether the state of assets exceeding liabilities shown on the financial statements reflects an evaluation that takes into account both contingent liabilities and declines in disposal value.

From the official text

Points at issue

[1] 일부 특정 채권자에게만 변제를 한다거나 담보를 제공하는 행위가 이른바 편파행위로서 파산법상의 부인권 행사의 대상이 되기 위하여는 그 행위 당시 채무자가 부채초과상태여야 하는지 여부(소극) [2] 파산법 제64조 제1호에서 정한 부인의 대상으로 되는 행위인 ‘파산자가 파산채권자를 해함을 알고 한 행위’에 이른바 편파행위도 포함되는지 여부(적극) 및 편파행위에 대한 고의부인이 인정되기 위하여 요구되는 주관적 요건의 내용 [3] 형식적으로는 기존 채무의 변제를 받고 그 직후 같은 금액을 신규대출하는 방식을 취하였지만, 그 실질 및 경제적 효과에 있어서는 기존 채무에 대한 기한의 연장에 불과한 점 등 제반 사정에 비추어, 이를 담보하기 위하여 이루어진 근저당권설정행위가 이른바 편파행위로서 파산법 제64조 제1호에서 정한 부인의 대상이 된다고 본 사례

Unofficial English translation

[1] Whether an act of paying only some specific creditors or providing security must, in order to be subject to the exercise of the right of avoidance under the Bankruptcy Act as a so-called preferential act, be one for which the debtor was in a state of excess liabilities at the time of the act (negative) [2] Whether a so-called preferential act is also included in an 'act done by the bankrupt with knowledge that it prejudices the bankruptcy creditors,' which is an act subject to avoidance as provided in Article 64, subparagraph 1 of the Bankruptcy Act (affirmative), and the content of the subjective requirement demanded for the recognition of intentional avoidance of a preferential act [3] A case where, although in form the arrangement took the form of receiving repayment of an existing debt and immediately thereafter making a new loan of the same amount, in its substance and economic effect it amounted to nothing more than an extension of the term of the existing debt, and in light of these and all other circumstances, the establishment of a maximum amount mortgage to secure it was held to be subject to avoidance under Article 64, subparagraph 1 of the Bankruptcy Act as a so-called preferential act

Summary of the holding

[1] 채무자의 일반재산의 유지·확보를 주된 목적으로 하는 채권자취소권의 경우와는 달리, 이른바 편파행위까지 규제 대상으로 하는 파산법상의 부인권 제도에 있어서는 반드시 해당 행위 당시 부채의 총액이 자산의 총액을 초과하는 상태에 있어야만 행사할 수 있다고 볼 필요도 없고, 행위 당시 자산초과상태였다 하여도 장차 파산절차에서 배당재원이 공익채권과 파산채권을 전부 만족시킬 수 없는 이상, 그리고 그러한 개연성이 존재하는 이상, 일부 특정 채권자에게만 변제를 한다거나 담보를 제공하는 것은 다른 채권자들이 파산절차에서 배당받아야 할 배당액을 감소시키는 행위로서 부인권 행사를 할 수 있다. [2] 파산법 제64조 제1호에서 정한 부인의 대상으로 되는 행위인 ‘파산자가 파산채권자를 해함을 알고 한 행위’에는 총채권자의 공동담보가 되는 파산자의 일반재산을 절대적으로 감소시키는 이른바 사해행위뿐만 아니라 특정한 채권자에 대한 변제나 담보의 제공과 같이 그 행위가 파산자의 재산관계에 영향을 미쳐 특정한 파산채권자를 배당에서 유리하게 하고 다른 파산채권자와의 공평에 반하는 이른바 편파행위도 포함되나, 한편 위와 같은 고의부인이 인정되기 위해서는 주관적 요건으로서 파산자가 ‘파산채권자를 해함을 알 것’을 필요로 하는데, 파산법이 정한 부인대상행위 유형화의 취지를 몰각시키는 것을 방지하고 거래 안전과의 균형을 도모하기 위해서는, 특정채권자에게 변제하거나 담보를 제공하는 편파행위를 고의부인의 대상으로 할 경우, 파산절차가 개시되는 경우에 적용되는 채권자평등의 원칙을 회피하기 위하여 특정채권자에게만 변제 혹은 담보를 제공한다는 인식이 필요하다고 할 것이다. [3] 형식적으로는 기존 채무의 변제를 받고 그 직후 같은 금액을 신규대출하는 방식을 취하였지만, 그 실질 및 경제적 효과에 있어서는 기존 채무에 대한 기한의 연장에 불과한 점 등 제반 사정에 비추어, 이를 담보하기 위하여 이루어진 근저당권설정행위가 이른바 편파행위로서 파산법 제64조 제1호에서 정한 부인의 대상이 된다고 본 사례.

Order

상고를 기각한다. 상고비용은 피고가 부담한다.

Unofficial English translation

The appeal is dismissed. The costs of the final appeal shall be borne by the defendant.

Provisions referred to

[1] 파산법 제64조 제1호, 제116조, 제117조 [2] 파산법 제64조 제1호 [3] 파산법 제64조 제1호

Read 2026-10-16 · Cross-read 2026-10-16. All quotes matched against the official text. The Chinese-character placeholders the court used for anonymised parties are given in their Korean readings, and parenthetical Chinese-character glosses are omitted.

Every entry is published only after all quotes have been matched character by character against the official text, and audited by an independent second reading from a different model family across all eight axes. Both agreed axes and text-grounded interpretive divergences are recorded openly. The ledger is a research record, not an assessment of the court or advice on any matter.

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